Written Analysis of Acid in the Environment Lessons Learned and Future Prospects

Chapter three of the book Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects was written by Kathy Fallon Lambert, Charles T. Driscoll, and Limin Chen (2007) and it is titled â€Å"Acidic Deposition: Sources and Ecological Effects†. This chapter together with the article â€Å"Acid rain and its ecological consequences† written by Madhoolika Agrawal and Anita Singh and which appeared in the 29th volume of the Journal of Environmental Biology describe the formation of acid rain and its consequences on the environment. These two sources of literature are very relevant to my research question: How does acid rain affect soil PH?Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Written Analysis of Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The three authors of chapter 3 in the book described above are professionals with impeccable records in Environmental Engineering. Kathy Fallon Lambert has done a lot of work relating to ecosystem science, both as the founder of Ecologic: Analysis Communications and during her tenure as the executive director of Hubbard Brook Research Foundation. As a result of her good work, she received the US EPA Environmental Merit Award. Besides, she is a Leopold scholar and a Switzer fellow. On his part, Charles T. Driscoll, an Environmental Systems Engineering Professor, teaches at the Syracuse University where he doubles up as the Director of the Centre for Environmental Systems Engineering. Limin Chen is employed at Systech Engineering, Inc., as a Water Resources and Environmental engineer and she has done a lot of work on forest ecosystems. All the three authors are PhD holders in their respective fields and they have done a lot of research studies on environmental engineering projects. Madhoolika Agrawal and Anita Singh, the authors of the journal article, are distinguished researchers and scholars work ing at the Ecology Research Laboratory in the Department of Botany, Baà ±aras Hindu University, India. The two scholars have done a lot of research on Environmental Engineering projects and they are widely published. The third chapter in the book Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects selected for this study is divided into four major sub-topics, namely: 1) Acidic deposition, 2) Effects of acidic deposition on ecosystems, 3) Ecosystem recovery, and 4) Recovery of acid-sensitive ecosystems with future decreases in emissions. On the other hand, the journal article has several subtopics running in an essay format on ten pages. I will endeavor to read through the two literatures with the aim of gathering information on the effects of acid rain on soil pH. Specific emphasis will be given to subtopic 2: Effects of acidic deposition on ecosystems in the book and another one titled Effects of acid rain on soil in the journal article. Driscoll et al. (2007, pp. 34) ac knowledge that acidification of soil has a negative impact on the soil’s ability to neutralize any further deposition of acids. Acidified soils are incapable of supporting the growth of plants because this process deprives the soil of the nutrient cations, such as, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.Advertising Looking for assessment on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Furthermore, the soil is invaded with sulfur and nitrogen, not forgetting the accumulation of dissolved inorganic aluminum. Driscoll et al. (2007, pp 37) noted that the soil acquires nutrient cations by weathering of the rocks and minerals, and to some extent, atmospheric deposition. In circumstance of low weathering rates, the forest ecosystems are normally vulnerable to acidic deposition because of low content of base cations. Since acidification of soil accelerates dissociation of nutrient cations from their compounds and thereafte r subjects them to leaching, the quality of the soil can be maintained only if there is equal replenishing of these cations by weathering of rocks and mineral (Driscoll et al. 2007, pp. 38). On their part, Singh and Agrawal (2008, pp. 16) state that rain is considered acidic if its pH value is below 5.6 and the level of concentration of hydrogen ions (H) is above 2.5. Furthermore, the authors agree that Sulphur dioxide (SO), ozone (O), and oxides of nitrogen are some of the major components that are involved in the formation of acid rain. With the help of sunlight and vapors, SO and NO interact and react to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid mists, which when condensed become aerosol droplets. Singh and Agrawal (2008, pp. 18) concede that the increased exchange between nutrient cations and hydrogen ion is as a result of the presence of acids in the soil. This exchange is responsible for the liberation of the (magnesium, potassium, and calcium) cations in the soil, which become vuln erable to leaching. The freed cations and the acid-generated sulphates are easily leached out in soil solutions. Nutrient cycling and poor decomposition are also as a result of soil acidification. Various research studies have indicated that the decomposition of litter generated from cellulose-rich plants, such as, birch, spruce, and spine, is adversely slowed by generous acidification. It has also been demonstrated that the structural diversity of Boreal forest ecosystems is highly dependant on the quality of soil and therefore acidification can destroy these forest ecosystems (Singh Agrawal 2008, pp. 18) References Driscoll, C. T., Lambert, F. K. Chen, L. 2007, â€Å"Acidic Deposition: Sources andAdvertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Written Analysis of Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ecological Effects†, in G R Visgilio D M Whitelaw (eds ), Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects, Springer, New York, pp. 27–58. Singh, A. Agrawal, M. 2008, â€Å"Acid rain and its ecological consequences†, Journal of  Environmental Biology, vol. 29 no. 1, pp. 15–24. This assessment on Written Analysis of Acid in the Environment: Lessons Learned and Future Prospects was written and submitted by user Raphael Nash to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How to Edit for a Friend

How to Edit for a Friend How to Edit for a Friend How to Edit for a Friend By Mark Nichol Many writers seek assistance from friends or family members for various projects, but this aid must be given and received with care. Here are some tips about asking for informal editing assistance and providing it. Editing for a friend or a family member is easily assumed to be a simple matter, but it requires clear communication about expectations. Different writing projects require various degrees of intervention, from proofreading to content editing to critiquing. (Many posts on DailyWritingTips.com discuss editing issues; search the site for â€Å"editing† to locate them.) Before asking for someone’s help with your resume, for example, it’s best to research formatting options and commit to your resume’s structure, and then perhaps simply ask for proofreading and/or advice about phrasing. Of course, if someone you know is knowledgeable about resumes, welcome more substantial feedback (though not everyone who evaluates resumes for hiring purposes is necessarily a good judge). Contradictory advice about resumes can be counterproductive, causing your confidence to be shaken. If you look at a friend or family member’s resume, generally, limit the extent of your response to the parameters of the person’s request, at least as far as marking up the document. However, a diplomatic comment about an excessive or minimal employment history, for example, is acceptable even if you’ve merely been asked to check for spelling and punctuation errors. College-admission essays are all about the applicant’s voice, not about his or her writing skill. Furthermore, an impeccably written essay might hinder rather than help: If the prospective student’s grades and test scores in English are not consistent with the writing caliber demonstrated in the essay, college admissions staff may see a red flag. If you do seek, or offer, assistance with an admission essay, the role should be that of a writing coach, not a ghostwriter (or even an editor). The idea is to help with the structure and depth of the essay, and to coax more vivid imagery and fresher phrasing, rather than rewrite sentences and replace words. If the document is a substantial work of nonfiction or fiction, agree on what type of assistance is to be given. â€Å"Does it work?† is a very different question than â€Å"Can you help me with my writing?† It’s not too much to request that someone read your novel and give you some general suggestions, but if you’re going to ask a friend or family member to spend many hours poring over it, commenting on plot, characterization, tone, structure, and the like (and, oh, yeah, correcting poor grammar and usage), you might as well hire the person rather than expect volunteer assistance. At this point, a professional editor will probably be more useful. Finally, understand that if you ask for editing assistance, expect a thorough housecleaning, not five minutes of dusting and straightening up. Assure your friend or relative that you will accept revisions or critiques with good grace, and honor that commitment. If you’re helping someone, even if he or she is confident, identify and communicate strengths and be diplomatic about weaknesses. And if the manuscript is substantial, ask for just an excerpt first, rather than the entire work. If the person’s writing skill is poor, it will be easier to simply offer some general comments or to suggest that you don’t feel up to the task. You’re welcome to be frank, of course at the expense of good relations with your relation. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Freelance Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Great Similes from Literature to Inspire You20 Words Meaning "Being or Existing in the Past"How to Treat Names of Groups and Organizations

Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 51

Philosophy - Essay Example Therefore, this paper attempts to look at Winfrey’s happiness using Aristotle’s theories including factors such as good fortune, virtue, lifetime and family. Obviously, as mentioned earlier, Winfrey has been blessed with good fortune. She is considered to be the wealthiest black woman, has several jobs and now owns a TV network named after her. She publishes a number of magazines which are widely read and are quite profitable. She is even offered roles in movies from time to time, making her stay in the limelight and benefit herself through more exposures and more income. She has friends whom she considers faithful to her for many years now, no matter her circumstances may be. According to Aristotle’s first requirement, Winfrey is a happy person. Secondly, Aristotle requires virtue to be a part of happiness. Having been molested as a child, Winfrey empathizes with innocent victims who have nothing else to do but take their share of the world’s cruelty. She supports and empowers them; funding their education through her â€Å"Angels†, an organization she put up to fund scholarships and, brings them justice by running after their abusers. She also gives huge amounts to charities, feeding thousands of less fortunate children and supporting organizations having the same objectives as hers. Moreover, Winfrey is known to give away surprises to her viewers such as scholarships in well-known universities, luxurious get-away trips and other simple treats to make her viewers enjoy a part of her successes. Accordingly, Winfrey could be said to be a virtuous person and therefore, a happy one. Aristotle considers that, â€Å"Happiness requires completeness in virtue as well as a complete lifetime† (23). Priam, in Greek mythology is, by Aristotle’s standard, not a happy man. Although he was successful in his endeavors as a king, his life ended in misery (26). In connection to Winfrey, one could not yet judge her happiness

Lighting Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lighting - Term Paper Example What exactly is this phenomenon? What causes it to occur? Have scientists through the years found the answers to explain this amazing occurrence? If this was a myth, what sort of stories was told about it? These are just some of the questions that this paper aims to answer. Introduction â€Å"A French scientist named Pierre Gassendi was claimed to have named the northern lights after the Roman goddess of dawn, â€Å"Aurora† in 1621. The word â€Å"borealis† was added to represent the Greek god of the north wind, â€Å"Boreas† † (Effron L., 2011.). Others, however, claimed that it was the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who actually first gave the term ‘Aurora Borealis’, a Latin derived word† (â€Å"Facts and Info†, n.d.). Places where aurora borealis can be viewed have become tourist attractions in that part of the world_ the northern latitudes which particularly they call the polar zones. Some scientists call them a s â€Å"polar auroras† (or aurorae polaris)† (Polar zone, n.d.). All types of aficionados all over the world and from all walks of life come and gather to this part of the world to enjoy looking and appreciating a â€Å"no man-made† awesome sights in the sky. ... Here are some facts gathered about the officially known aurora borealis or northern lights in the earth’s northern hemisphere. Is Aurora Borealis, A Myth? When there were still no valid explanations for these amazing colorful sightings in the sky, people invented several stories translated into legends, folklores and myths. As myths, many have thought of these colorful lights in the sky as something alien in origin (â€Å"Alaska Public Land†, n.d.). It is important to note that â€Å"different cultures and communities had different stories to tell about the aurora borealis. For one, it was thought to be spirits of the dead dancing in heaven while others believed that those people who whistled at the lights were taken away by them. The lights were also thought to be trails of various gods and goddesses traveling in the sky. The dominance of red colors it radiated in the sky was also perceived to be signs of bloodshed, wars, and catastrophic events. Some have accepted th em as signs given by Immortal Gods and Goddesses in strange worlds trying to communicate with mortals† (â€Å"Facts and Info†, n.d.). But eventually through the years of man’s milestone achievements on scientific technology-advancement, persistent scientists were able to find scientific answers to what causes and makes up these northern lights. The Scientific Explanation The Corpuscular Theory of the Aurora Borealis by Goldstein in 1881 was one of the earliest theories attempting to explain the occurrence of the northern lights (Spencer, 1918). Further studies in support of the aurora borealis were initiated by, Paulsen, a Danish meteorologist (1891), Birkeland (1896), Dr.

Describe in detail how you would go about isolating and studying the Essay

Describe in detail how you would go about isolating and studying the expression of the gene which appears to render the Southern Region population subgroup in saudi Arabia resistant to Type 2 diabetes - Essay Example Among these are the genes encoding leptin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and adiptonectin. These genes may be involved in the development of insulin resistance. Therefore, to address the potential genetic association between resistance to type 2 diabetes, it is important to assess whether individuals whose phenotype shows resistance to the disorder are genetically screened to see if differences exist between the structure and/or activity of adipocytokine genes in groups women with similar risk factors (viz. obesity) and markedly different incidence rates for diabetes. A subpopulation of Saudi Arabian women has been identified that is resistant to the development of type 2 diabetes, despite incidence rates of obesity at the same level as the entire population of women in Saudi Arabia. The purpose of this research was to identify whether or not there was a genetic basis to this phenotypic observation. The present study involves a genetic assessment of the gene called resistin, previously identified in mice on chromosome 8 (Steppan et al, 2001). To study this gene in humans it was necessary to clone the gene. This process is initiated by a technique called fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). The mouse gene is used as a probe to identify the chromosomal location of its human gene counterpart. Since gene sequences are frequently homologous among different species, the related genes or orthologues can be used to identify similar genes in different species (Gregory & Hebert, 1999). The mouse gene is attached to a fluorescent probe and mixed with human chromosomal DNA that has been denatured (connverted to single stranded form). The fluorescent band identifies the chromosomal location of the gene in humans. The chromosome segment can then be cut with restriction enzymes and linked to an expression vector to generate a recombinant

Building Rapport By Listening English Language Essay

Building Rapport By Listening English Language Essay PR people need a few theories and models to help get to grips with the bigger picture and why communications matters. But for most of us we need to get on with it and be able to deliver material results. Here we look at some of the practical skills we need to master in order to do the job well. If we look at job descriptions for PR and communications professionals, the skills required can be sorted into three broad groups Briefing Skills Writing Skills Presentation Skills Finally being assertive is essential for any professional and PR practitioners particularly need this skill in their role as consultants so well look at this as a practical skill. Briefing Skills Building rapport by listening, questioning and observation of body language As communications specialists we are likely, through our careers, to work with a wide variety of people, particularly colleagues and clients. We may also need to conduct research with target audiences, by interviewing them on a one-to-one or small group basis. We may also need to work with and interview case history subjects in order to obtain material to write up afterwards. So skilful questioning and listening, along with competent note and minute taking, are all essential skills. We may take a brief in a relaxed and supportive environment on an aspect of business that requires a planned and proactive communications strategy. Or we may take a briefing when an issue has gone live or an incident has taken place where people are rushed, anxious and concerned, where we are expected to come up with a professional, immediate reactive response. Some briefings are excellent and all the information is there: a written version supplements a verbal briefing; there is complete openness; questions are answered thoroughly. Other briefings are partial, thin on detail, assumptions are made, the verbal briefing is poorly delivered, and sometimes the person taking the brief is and feels less senior and so potentially rather intimidated so the right penetrating questions may not be asked or assumptions go unchallenged. Mistakes get made this way hence the ability to handle a briefing competently is vital. Listening During a briefing we often need to get a lot of information out of people quickly and efficiently. And to do this we must be active listeners as well as skilled questioners. We must be able to concentrate on whats being said and to sometimes draw out what really matters. We need to hear what the client whether an internal or external client is anxious about, is excited about and what the core business issues really are. Listening is an active skill, not a passive exercise. Listening is more demanding than speaking, in terms of concentration. Because we lead busy lives, we can be distracted by other thoughts and this can get in the way of good listening. You have to get into the right frame of mind to listen. There are three levels of listening Peripheral Listening Done at subconscious level, formal and informal situations cocktail party syndrome eg at party, restaurant Apparent Listening We do it all the time look like we are listening but not really concentrating Active Listening Concentrating on the message being transmitted by trying to understand not only what is being said but how and why it is said Interpreting Understanding Evaluating Reacting Planning Responding Most people talk at c.125 words per minute but think at four times that speed. So listeners have spare mental capacity (which they could use to make useful notes) but which in practice means they can also go off on one, their minds can wander, they daydream and are distractedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦unless they concentrate and listen actively. People feel unimportant, insignificant and disrespected if they sense their ideas, concerns, feelings and not being paid close attention or being taken seriously. But not only can the working relationship suffer, the ineffective listener can simply get things wrong! If you ask a question and get the answer you were expecting, you make assumptions and so miss some enlightening, new or additional important information. If you are busy getting your next question together in your mind you wont be listening to the current answer. Listening well Prepare to listen. If you can, do some research/reading before you go into a briefing session. For example read last years PR programme, an annual report, the latest media coverage and so on. Get into the right frame of mind Win:Win is what you should be aiming for, even if previous meetings with those briefing you have been challenging. Observe participants body language and speed of speaking (to pick up clues about areas of concern, urgency and any anxiety). Dont make assumptions but observe and tune in to the people involved. Sit to see. A fundamental point but having clear visual contact will aid concentration. Dont forget that placing your back to the sun means that the person youre listening to may not be able to see your eyes or facial expressions clearly. Likewise you want to see them clearly too. We gain so much more information if we listen to body language too. Avoid distractions. Apart from worrying about how much you have to do, other distractions can interfere with concentration; open plan offices, external sound, glass walls, television screens and mobile devices that people cant get their eyes and attention away from. Be careful about these interfering with your concentration when you are listening. Show empathy and build rapport. At the opening stages of a briefing its useful to show empathy so that rapport is built with the other person. Empathy is an attempt to understand the other person, to understand how the person feels and thinks and sees the world. Its getting a sense of their perspective. The issue is not to agree, disagree, or make judgements but to make a genuine effort to understand how the person briefing you sees the opportunity or issue. Look at it from their point of view and then add your own perspective as a communications consultant. At the start of a meeting use similar or matching language and body language to assist in building rapport. Show you are interested in the subject so that the person briefing you feels more inclined to engage and communicate back. Practise. Take every opportunity to practise and improve your listening skills. A colleague of mine listens to Radio Four documentaries and then recalls key points afterwards and includes these in her blog posts. Practical active practical listening techniques Checking understanding One of the ways to check your understanding of what has been said is to use feedback. In your own words, repeat back to the speaker what you understood her/him to have said. This will: Check your understanding of whats being said. Help eliminate any unintended messages which the speaker didnt mean. Demonstrate your interest in whats being said. Demonstrate that you really understand. Let the speaker think about whats being said. Encourage a clearer explanation of complex points. For example, you may hear: Its a sensitive situation because of the potential financial impact on the business. You could check understanding by responding: So youre saying that there may be a knock-on effect on profitability? Re-statement reflects a genuine attempt to understand the other persons point of view and helps to identify any issues that arise. Summarising This is more than re-statement or reflection, it is drawing together the main themes and key points from what you have heard. This facility can often be essential when the briefer has given a rather rambling and incoherent brief. Summarising what you have heard will help to check back the facts and assumptions. Summarising can also: Indicate that you have understood what has been said. Move the conversation on. Make an effective break point or end to the meeting. Establish a starting point at a subsequent meeting. 10 rules for great listening: Stop talking. Try to put the briefer at ease, get them to feel that they have your attention and you will respect their thoughts. Show that you want to listen. Look and act interested. Remove distractions. Empathise with the briefer. Be patient as far as you can. Monitor and supress any impulse to judge or counsel too soon. Avoid argument and any implied criticism. Ask questions Stop talking! Questioning The ability to ask great questions is, in my opinion, one of the most crucial skills anyone working in communications should master. Great questioning helps you get the information you need: to prepare a sound PR proposal, to understand the opinions, thoughts and feelings of a stakeholder, to write a focused report, to assess a situation, to get to the heart of the matter. The right questions achieve clarity, promote reflection, enhance creativity and help work out solutions. As you get more senior and are responsible for coaching and mentoring others, great questions are a key way to help people reflect and learn. Whatever the context, great questions show you are listening and paying attention to your subject. Its not simply a question of the right questions either; its also the way you ask them so pay attention to your tone of voice and body language too. Using the Right Questioning Style Open questions help the other person define the opportunity or issue and to explore it. They provide factual information and the other persons thoughts and possibly their feelings behind it. Open questions can also generate thinking and reflection and ensure that focus is kept on the issue. Well timed open questions can change how someone looks at an issue too and can help identify actions to take. Open questions are always a good place to start a discussion or a briefing as they do exactly that open up the dialogue. Open questions most often start with What, How, When and Where or Tell me aboutà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ What can I/we do for you? What do you think the opportunity is? Whats your role in this issue? What have you tried so far? What worked? What didnt? Have you experienced anything like this before? (If so, what did you do?) What can you do for yourself? What are the business needs? How will that benefit the business? What is important about that? What is holding the business back? What if you do nothing? What is this costing? How much control do you have in this situation? What options do you have? What support do you need to assure success? What do you need us to do for you? What do you hope for? Whats preventing you from ? If you could change one thing, what would it be? How will you know you have been successful? What does success look like? Imagine a point in the future where your issue is resolvedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦how did you get there? What would you like to ask us? Journalists use these open questions frequently when interviewing subjects for features and news pieces: Did youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? Are youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? Whatsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? How manyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? Whereà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.? Depending on the situation, be careful when asking open questions that begin with why. A why question makes people feel defensive, accountable to justify their actions. You do need to ask why questions to clarify causation especially when working out what has happened if an incident has taken place just be careful of the phrasing so it doesnt look like any blame is being apportioned and that it doesnt sound like finger pointing. 2. Closed questions can be used to check facts, or as a summary. Use them sparingly as they tend to elicit simple yes or no answers. Have you toldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? What I think Im hearing isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ is that right? 3 Clarifying questions help you and your subject understand the key point and get to the bottom line. They can uncover the root cause of issues. These are especially useful when conducting research interviews and doing in-depth profiles of case histories. Ask questions about the persons point of view, perspectives, beliefs, values and actions. Great provocative questions can prompt light bulb moments which can shift things positively and quickly. When you launched your brand what what did you imagine would be the impact on your life? When did you first consider you had achieved success? 4. Reflecting questions enable the questioner to clarify what has been said and to get the subject to talk freely and in depth. Reflecting questions call for the questioner to engage in active listening. Using their own words you encourage further information. Reflecting questions often begin: You said thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ You sound as if à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. I get the feeling that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 5. Extending questions are used to invite further explanation and to prompt a further answer: How else couldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? Could you tell me more about..? 6. Comparative questions are useful where the questioner may need to compare a situation on a before and after basis: What has it been like sinceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? What difference has à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. 7. Hypothetical questions may allow the subject to explore ideas and issues in a non-threatening theoretical environment: Imagine a future whereà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦how would you feel? If you were faced with the same situation again would you do anything differently? 8. Rephrasing or paraphrasing may be used when the questioner is not clear what the subject thinks, feels or means and allows you to play back what has been said: Are you saying thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? Let me see if I understand the problem completelyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 9. Linking questions are useful for picking up clues but depend on active listening. The question is formed by picking up an earlier response from the subject: You mentioned earlier thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ how would youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? Leading questions (a sub-section of closed questions) should generally be avoided. A leading question is asked in order to lead another to a pre-determined answer or conclusion. This sort of question comes across as dishonest and manipulative. You can recognise leading questions because they are statements that can often can be answered yes or no. That said, journalists may use leading questions in interviews Youre a Conservative, arent you? How did you react? Were you furious? How much money went missing more than a million pounds? Assumptive questions (which can be annoying but, if phrased well, can get into interesting areas) are also used extensively by journalists. Were you educated in a private or state school? How many redundancies will there be? Are you married or single? (when the answer may be neitherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) When did you last beat your wife? Direct, suggestive or loaded questions which are manipulative but are often used again by journalists to provoke a response and add tension into proceedings Scientists have proven that cigarette smoking cause cancer so why should manufacturers be allowed to continue to promote them at all? What sort of person would disagree with campaigns to control birth rates? Ghandi said non-violent protest was the only way dont you agree? Socratic Questioning Academics often use Socratic Questioning to facilitate investigation and dialogue. The US-based Foundation for Critical Thinking published a paper in 2006 by Richard Paul and Linda Elder that defined nine types of Socratic questions, useful for critical enquiry Questions of clarification What do you mean by X? What is your main point? How does this relate to X? Could you put that another way? Could you say more about that? Why do you say that? Let me check I understand do you mean X or Y? Can you explain that further? Can you give me an example? Would this be an example of X? How does this relate to the brief/issue? Is your basic point X or Y? What do you think David meant by that remark? What do you believe he actually meant? Questions That Probe Purpose What is the purpose of X? What was your purpose when you said X? How do the purposes of these two people vary? How do the purposes of these two groups vary? What is the purpose of addressing this question at this time? Questions That Probe Assumptions What are you assuming? What is Karen assuming? What could we assume instead? You seem to be assuming X . Do I understand you correctly? All your conclusions depend on the idea thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Why have you based your reasoning on X rather than Y? You seem to be assuming X. How would you justify taking this for granted? Is it always the case? Why do you think the assumption holds here? Questions That Probe Information, Reasons, Evidence and Causes What would be an example? How do you know? What are your reasons for saying that? Why did you say that? What other information do we need to know before we can address this question? Why do you think that is true? Could you explain your reasons to us? What led you to that belief ? Is this good evidence for believing that? Do you have any evidence to support your assertion? Are those reasons adequate? How does that information apply to this case? Is there reason to doubt that evidence? What difference does that make? Who is in a position to know if that is the case? What would convince you otherwise? What would you say to someone who said ? What accounts for ? What do you think is the cause? How did this come about? By what reasoning did you come to that conclusion? How could we go about finding out whether that is true? Can someone else give evidence to support that response? Questions about Viewpoints or Perspectives You seem to be approaching this issue from perspective. Why have you chosen this perspective rather than that perspective? How would other groups or types of people respond? Why? What would influence them? How could you answer the objection that would make? Can/did anyone see this another way? What would someone who disagrees say? What is an alternative? How are Kens and Roxannes ideas alike? Different? Questions That Probe Implications and Consequences What are you implying by that? When you say , are you implying ? But if that happened, what else would also happen as a result? Why? What effect would that have? Would that necessarily happen or only probably happen? What is an alternative? If this and this are the case, then what else must be true? Questions about the Question How can we find out? Is this the same issue as ? How could someone settle this question? Can we break this question down at all? Is the question clear? Do we understand it? How would put the issue? Is this question easy or difficult to answer? Why? What does this question assume? Would put the question differently? Why is this question important? Does this question ask us to evaluate something? Do we need facts to answer this? Do we all agree that this is the question? To answer this question, what other questions would we have to answer first? Im not sure I understand how you are interpreting the main question at issue. Could you explain your interpretation? Questions That Probe Concepts What is the main idea we are dealing with? Why/how is this idea important? Do these two ideas conflict? If so, how? What was the main idea guiding the thinking of the character in this story? How is this idea guiding our thinking as we try to reason through this issue? Is this idea causing us problems? What main theories do we need to consider in figuring out ? Are you using this term in keeping with educated usage? Which main distinctions should we draw in reasoning through this problem? Which idea is this author using in her or his thinking? This there a problem with it? Questions That Probe Inferences and Interpretations Which conclusions are we coming to about ? On what information are we basing this conclusion? Is there a more logical inference we might make in this situation? How are you interpreting her behaviour? Is there another possible interpretation? What do you think of ? How did you reach that conclusion? Given all the facts, what is the best possible conclusion? How shall we interpret these data? Understanding body language Non-verbal communication is often the way we show the emotional side of our relationships with others. Effective body language works alongside our spoken words in order to convey meaning more clearly. Give positive signals by Arriving on time Show you are committed to the aims of the meeting Show interest in what is being said When you talk in the meeting give everyone some eye contact by moving your eyes around the room Try and control the tone of your voice so that it is calm and unflustered with variation in tone and pitch Dont yawn Pick up signals from other peoples body language You can watch other participants and try to assess their thoughts and feelings even if they are not saying anything. Some important signals to look for are; Eye contact people who are looking at you are likely to be listening. People who look away from you when you talk to them may be nervous Body direction usually in meetings everyone sits facing the chairperson. If someone turns their body away they may be unhappy with what is happening, changing direction completely or possibly pushing their chair back may show a great degree of dissatisfaction Posture this can be interpreted in many different ways. Sitting back may be a sign of disinterest or of being relaxed. At an informal meeting sitting on the edge of the seat may be an indication of fear or tension. Head movements the obvious ones are the nod or shake of agreement or disagreement. Most people will unconsciously nod or shake their heads and this provides you with a lot of information. Facial expressions again at a meeting facial expressions such as smiling frowning questioning are often unconscious and can reveal information about what the person is thinking. Body language clues that often reveal whats going on with the listener Smiling, open and positive gestures, standing or sitting close, lots of eye contact, nodding, tilting head = empathy and rapport Sitting with crossed leg towards you = defensiveness, distrust Sitting with crossed leg away from you = willingness to trust Rigid or tense body posture, staring eyes, clenched fists, clasped hands, tightly folded arms, foot tapping, finger pointing = anger, aggression, irritation, nervousness, Downcast eyes, hand over mouth, frequently touching face, shifting weight from one leg to another, fidgeting = nervousness Picking fluff from clothes, pulling at ears, stifled yawning, gazing around the room = boredom Non-verbal communication By developing awareness of the signs and signals of body language, you can more easily understand other people, and more effectively communicate with them. The difference between the words people speak and our understanding of what they are saying comes from non-verbal communication, otherwise known as body language. There are sometimes subtle and sometimes not so subtle movements, gestures, facial expressions and even shifts in our whole bodies that indicate something is going on. The way we talk, walk, sit and stand all say something about us, and whatever is happening on the inside can be reflected on the outside. By becoming more aware of this body language and understanding what it might mean, you can learn to read people more easily. This puts you in a better position to communicate effectively with them. Whats more, by increasing your understanding of others, you can also become more aware of the messages that you convey to them. This article will explain many of the ways in which we communicate non-verbally, so that you can use these signs and signals to communicate more effectively. How We Communicate A famous study by Albert Mehrabian found that non-verbal language makes up 55% of how we communicate in face-to-face interactions. He also concluded that we communicate as much as 38% of our message through our voice (tone, pitch, and so on), with as little as 7% through the words we actually say. Understanding and recognizing the signs and signals that make up this 55% can help you when you communicate with others. There are times when we send mixed messages we say one thing yet our body language reveals something different. This non-verbal language will affect how we act and react to others, and how they react to us. So, lets take a look at some scenarios, and see how body language influences your perception and reactions. First Impressions and Confidence Recall a time when you met someone new at work. Or think about the last time you watched a speaker deliver a presentation. What were your first impressions? Did you sense confidence or a lack of confidence in them? Did you want to associate with them or not? Were you convinced by them? Did they stride into the room, engage you and maintain eye contact or were they tentative, shuffling towards you with eyes averted, before sliding into a chair? What about their handshake firm and strong or weak and limp? Moving along in the conversation, did they maintain solid eye contact or were they frequently looking away? Did their face appear relaxed or was it tight and tense? What about their hand and arm movements? Were their gestures wide, flowing and open or were they tight, jerky and closed? As you observe others, you can identify some common signs and signals that give away whether they are feeling confident or not. Typical things to look for in confident people include: Posture standing tall with shoulders back. Eye contact solid with a smiling face. Gestures with hands and arms purposeful and deliberate. Speech slow and clear. Tone of voice moderate to low. As well as deciphering other peoples the body language, you can use this knowledge to convey feelings that youre not actually experiencing. For example, if you are about to enter into a situation where you are not as confident as youd like to be, such as giving a big presentation or attending an important meeting, you can adopt these confidence signs and signals to project confidence. Lets now look at another scenario. Difficult Meetings and Defensiveness Think of a time when you were in a difficult meeting perhaps a performance appraisal or one where you are negotiating deadlines, responsibilities or a contract. In an ideal world, both you and the other person would be open and receptive to hearing what each other has to say, in order to conclude the meeting successfully. However, often, the other person is defensive and doesnt really listen. If this happens during an appraisal meeting, and its important for you to convey to your colleague that he or she needs to change certain behaviors, you really want them open and receptive to you so they take on board what you are saying. So how can you tell whether your message is falling on deaf ears? Some of the common signs that the person you are speaking with may be feeling defensive include: Hand/arm gestures are small and close to his or her body. Facial expressions are minimal. Body is physically turned away from you. Arms are crossed in front of body. Eyes maintain little contact, or are downcast. By picking up these signs, you can change what you say or how you say it to help the other person become more at ease, and more receptive to what you are saying. Equally, if you are feeling somewhat defensive going into a negotiating situation, you can monitor your own body language to ensure that the messages you are conveying are ones that say that you are open and receptive to what is being discussed. Working with Groups and Disengagement Have you ever delivered a presentation, and had a sense that people werent really buying into what you had to say? What about working with a group to facilitate a consensus on responsibilities and deadlines? Was everyone on board with the ideas, or did some appear disengaged? Ideally, when you stand up to deliver a presentation or work with group, you want 100% engagement with all concerned. This often doesnt happen on its own, though. But you can actively engage the audience when you need to if youre alert to some of the typical signs and signals of people not being engaged. Some of these signs and signals include: Heads are down. Eyes are glazed, or gazing at something else. Hands may be picking at cloths, or fiddling with pens. People may be writing or doodling. They may be sitting slumped in their chairs. When you pick up that someone appears not to be engaged in what is going on, you can do something to re-engage him or her and bring their focus back to what you are saying, such as asking them a direct question. And while this is going on, make sure that your own body language is saying what you want it to. Lying Of all the non-verbal body language that we may observe, being able to tell whether a person is lying or not will stand you in good stead. Some of the typical signs and signals that a person is lying include: Eyes maintain little or no eye contact, or there may be rapid eye movements, with pupils constricted. Hand or fingers are in front of his or her mouth when speaking. His or her body is physically turned away from you, or there are unusual/un-natural body gestures. His or her breathing rate increases. Complexion changes such as in color; red in face or neck area. Perspiration increases.

Zerg vs. Protoss :: essays research papers

Zerg V. Protoss   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On planet Char, controlled by the mind controlling warp weapon, the Zergs, a fierce alien race, were at war with the Terren, a human like race. The Zerg were being pushed off their own planet. So Kerrigan, the leader of Zerg, devised a brilliant plan. She was going to genetically engineer a new breed to help destroy the Terren. They would combine part of them and the Terran to create the Protoss, a new alien race. Their plan is a success and their Protoss is powerful enough to push back the Terren. When Terren hears of the new breed, Protoss, they quickly challenges the Zergs to a battle in order to win over the Protoss. During the battle of Gloopinbopper, Zerg pushes on, with the help of the new creation Protoss. After days of battling and heavy losses they easily overruns the Terren and out numbers them ninety-eight thousand seven hundred and thirty four to thirty-seven thousand four hundred and fifty two. The Zerg’s final push to reconquer their home planet and retake the mind controlling warp weapon is once again a success. After the long and strenuous battle the Protoss begin to realize the sheer strength they possess within themselves. They decide that they are tired of being treated as pure slaves and begin to devise a plan to overthrow the Zergs and take over of the mind controlling warp weapon. After months of planning they finally have a devious idea on how to take over. But w hile still in the planning stages the Zerg realizes what they are planning and attack. The Protoss are caught off guard and have no choice but to retreat to the deserted planet of Pigglywigglywump. The Terren hear of what is going on between the Protoss and the Zerg. So they decide to use what little troops they have left to try to take over the weak Zerg and buy the Protoss time. With the time the Protoss gain they build a crystal powered mega bomb that is capable of destroying anything and everything around it, with the exception of the Protoss. In the meantime the Zerg have destroyed the Terran and are planning to continue their attack on the Protoss.

Global Warming and the Effects Essay

Global warming refers to the heating of the air near the earth’s surface and oceans and this problem was first noted to happen in the 1950s period. Today the issue of global warming is one of the most widely discussed as it has serious implications to our environment. Global warming is as a consequence of human activities and its main contributor is the high level of greenhouse gases that are emitted to the atmosphere. One of these gases is methane, nitrogen dioxide, water vapors and carbon dioxide (CO2), which are emitted when fossil fuels such natural gas, oil, diesel and coal are burned. The issue of global warming has risen to the levels of concern today and days cannot pass without it being mentioned. If its effects are not mitigated the world will become an inhabitable place. The effects of global warming are many ranging from rise in global temperatures, forests destruction, melting and retreat of ice glaciers and thawing of snow that covers the mountains and destruction of the coastal ecosystems. This is what this research paper will basically focus on. It will discuss in depth the causes of global warming how these effects impact our society. This research paper is structured as follows; it starts with a brief introduction of what global warming is, its origin and how it has developed overtime, some examples of where it has already occurred will be given and then the conclusion. At the very end there is also a list of all the works cited, properly formatted in accordance with the MLA formatting style. Most people according to Weart (13) use the term global warming to mean climatic change but this is not true. The former is as a result of human activities and changes in the solar system but later is any change in the state of the average climate in terms of precipitation and weather over an extended period of time. The first effects of global warming were first noted in the mid 19th century and according to various reports given by different researchers, global warming results due to unchecked human activities. The world has experienced and witnessed changes in ice formation and melting not mentioning the abrupt rise in global temperatures. Though weather variations are something that is as old as mankind, its recent changes have awakened the conscience of men. Although there are periods when temperatures are a bit hot, there was unusual rise in temperatures in the period between 1980s and 1990s. This problem has continued up to the 21st century. â€Å"In terms of global average near the surface air temperature, the year 1998 was the warmest in the instrumental record and the nine warmest years in that record have occurred since 1990† (Houghton 2). The Graph below Shows How Global Temperature Has Increased Over Time Due to Global Warming. Gotten from http://globalwarming-awareness2007-arshad. com/global-warming-graphs. shtml The rise in the rates at which hurricanes, tornadoes and the general blowing of strong wind is also attributed to global warming. These effects were experienced in Western Europe especially in England in the late 1980s. No single human being can claim not to have contributed to the global warming as in one way or the other one must have been involved in cooking using fossil fuels and in transport. These are the major contributors of global warming because they increase the amount of carbon dioxide gas which is in the atmosphere. (Natural Resources Defense Council). The problem with greenhouse gases is that they trap hot air that is trying to escape from the ocean and earths’ surface something that has serious consequences. Carbon dioxide behaves like a blanket and a mirror. It traps hot air and sends it back to the ground thus there is a lot of water evaporation on the oceans thereby increasing humidity in the air. Also this humidity also behaves like CO2 which traps hot air thus making the air in the atmosphere even warmer (Haughton 12) Most of the global effects we are witnessing today were predicted long time ago by scientists for example the world meteorological organization (WMO) issued a warning in 2003 that there will be increase in weather changes and the examples that it gave were tornadoes, hurricanes and heat waves. Today these tornadoes are like the order of the day and are the effects of global warming. According to scientists, when ice glaciers melts, that water flows to the oceans which in turn floods and the problem that results is that even when there is a small storm water is blown to the earths’ surface. Human activities that contribute to global warming dates back to the Industrial Revolution period when labor became mechanized. Those machines used fossil fuels such as coal which emits large amount of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The current human activities are contributing largely to the global warming that human activities of the 19th century although the current global warming effects are not just as a result of these current activities but is as a result of human activities extended over time. According to a report that was produced by the World Meteorological Organization, the period from early 1990s up to 2007 has registered the highest degrees in terms of global temperature. The average global temperature for the year 2007 was estimated to be 0. 41oC above the average annual temperature of the 1960s of 14. 00oc Just like there are many environmental variables, the same applies when it comes to human activities which contribute to global warming. As per the IPCC’s fourth assessment report, since 1750, human activities with a very high probability were said to be the cause of global warming. The increase of global warming for the last fifty years has been due to the increase in greenhouses emissions. The Graph Below shows how the Concentration of Greenhouse Gas has increased In the Last 250 Years. It was accessed from http://earthsci. org/education/teacher/basicgeol/global_warm/global_warm. html These gases also destroy the ozone that protects some harmful sun rays from reaching the sun and that is why there are so many cases of cancer in the world. The main source of these gases is the fuels that are used on vehicles, planes and other machines such as generators and water pumps and the fuels that are used in households. What happens is that when sun rays reach the earths’ surface, they heat the surface while the excess heat is radiated back to the atmosphere. These rays are supposed to be lost in the space but because there is a lot of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the sunlight with longer wavelength are trapped by these gases (Silverstein and Nunn 53-54). Now the problem is that it leads to global warming in that these gases behave like mirrors that reflect back sun rays to the earth leading to overheating of the global temperature and this is what is referred by scientists as greenhouse effect. Even the water vapor that results due to overheating of the ocean surfaces is also a greenhouse gas. It is estimated that these vapors contribute 36 to 70 percent of the global warming while carbon dioxide accounts for 9-26 percent while others like methane and ozone contributes about 4-9 percent and 3-7percent respectively. Methane is always present in the earth and so when mining or soil erosion occurs due to human activities; it is exposed to the atmosphere. This methane combines with other gases in the atmosphere and it releases carbon dioxide. Population is another factor that has contributed to the rise in global temperature. There is no direct link of overpopulation to global warming but through an intricate process it contributes. When population increase, it means people will require more food and demand for more food means that more agricultural lands will be cultivated. Scientifically we know that trees help in purifying air by absorbing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere so when vegetation cover is cleared the chances of global warming to result are high as greenhouses gases remain uncontrolled. Also, to some extent green vegetations lead to global warming. When green vegetation rot they release a smelly gas. This gas is methane and is one of those greenhouse gases. Again as people demand more food, they devise ways of increasing food production and one way of doing this is by using animal manure which contains a lot of methane. People are forced to keep animals so as they would get this manure thus indirectly leading to the global warming. As population grows, more energy is needed in the production sectors. Fuel usage increase in the production companies so as to meet the ever increasing demand for products. Population increase mean more transport demands, this leads to an increase in the number of vehicles resulting to more emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Apart from human causes, there are also natural causes of global warming. Sun which is part of the solar system could also contribute to the global warming. If there happens to be output changes in terms of the heat that the sun produces, global temperature could rise. Another natural factor that could contribute is if there happens to be a change in the shape of the orbit that earth as a planet follows. If one point is closer to the sun then, global temperature at that particular period of time could rise. All these causes of global warming lead to several negative consequences. One of these effects is the increase in precipitation. As more and more water evaporates and is trapped in the clouds it then falls as precipitation. When the oceans are heated by the sun, evaporation occurs leading to heavy rain that has negative results for example it leads to floods and soil erosion. (Victor 31-33) Another effect associated with global warming is the thawing of mountain glaciers. In the period between 1550s and 1850s there was a lot of glaciers but this has subsequently decreased over time. It is estimated that the world glaciers with the exception of ice sheets and caps in the Antarctic and Arctic regions has gone down by 50 percent. The reduction of these glaciers has been witnessed in Himalayas Mountains, Alps, Rocky Mountains and Pyrenees. The consequences of melting of these glaciers are many and one of them is flash slides, increase in landslides not mentioning the overflow of the glacial lakes. It also makes some rivers to become seasonal, during summer time they become dry and then gain water during winter. When glaciers melt, water levels in the ocean go up and it destroys the ecological system of the coastal areas because these floods engulf the coastal dry lands. Global temperature interferes with the balance and the length of the seasons. This will affect farmers who sow their seeds in a particular time predicting to be harvested at a particular time. â€Å"Farmers are planting the seeds according to the seasons and rain, but since the rains are getting disturbed and also the climate is getting shifted, the sowing time is difficult to predict, which will lead to poor production hence shortage of food grains† (Global warming, 2008). Marine life is also under extinction threats due to global temperature change. Many marine species have already succumbed to high temperatures in the seas. Penguins which live in coral leafs are the worst affected. Global warming leads to the destruction of the coral reefs and this leads to the interference in penguin’s life cycle resulting to many deaths. Also global warming leads to the retreat of ice in the sea. Though sea water absorbs sun’s heat, this ice reflects back some of the heat. If this ice melts away, sea water will get hot leading to the rise in temperature. According to a report made by the IPCC Fourth Assessment, it was predicted that forest fires will increase in some regions of the world like in the Mediterranean Europe. Global warming has no direct link to the bush fires but the thing is, there will be shortage of rain in those regions thus increasing the chances of forest fires being spread in large scale. When fire burns, carbon dioxide is emitted to the air and since this fire will clear all the remaining vegetations that would absorb some carbon dioxide, a lot of carbon dioxide will be released more than the natural cycle can handle and what will result is global warming due to green house effects. (Natural Resources Defense Council) Global warming also destroys the ozone layer that is in the atmosphere. This layer prevents the harmful sunrays such as ultra violet rays from reaching the earth. These rays lead to increased cases of skin cancer. To conclude this research paper, it is in order to say that global warming leads to the rise of the average global temperatures and have serious consequences on the environment. The main contributor of global warming is human activities although to some extent some natural factors such as alteration of the earth orbit could result to temperature rise. Global changes started to be witnessed in the mid 19th century but of late the effect are many and on the increasing trend. Its many effects have served as an awakening call to many governments to come up with various strategies that could help to reverse the trend. Global warming mostly results from fossil fuels which emit carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases include; ozone, methane, water vapors and nitrogen dioxide. What these gases do is that they trap hot air that is trying to escape from the ground resulting to overheating of both the ocean and ground surfaces. The effects of global warming are many and includes; rise in temperatures, forest fire outbreaks, thawing and retreat of glaciers, overflowing of rivers and lakes, disruption in the balance of seasons, extinction of some species especially those that live in seas, desertification, coastal lands being engulfed by floods and increase in diseases such as cancer and malaria. Works Cited: Global Warming. Global Warming Awareness. 2008. Accessed on October 30, 2008 from http://www. globalwarming. org. in/global-warming-facts. php Houghton J. Theodore. Global Warming: The Complete Briefing. Cambridge University Press, 2004 Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC). Global Warming: Consequences. 2008. Available at http://www. nrdc. org/globalWarming/fcons. asp Silverstein, A. and Nunn, L. S. Global Warming. Twenty-First Century Books, 2003 Watson R. The Natural Causes of Global Warming. 2007 http://www. associatedcontent. com/article/300649/the_natural_causes_of_global_ warming. html? cat=47 Weart S. R. The Discovery of Global Warming. Harvard University Press, 2003. Victor, David G. The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to Slow Global Warming: And the Struggle to Slow Global Warming. Princeton University Press, 2001

Italy

The setting of the story is mainly in Italy. This is where all the action of the story takes place. Fred is in Italy at the beginning of the war and he joins the Italian army. The city that Fred is stationed in throughout most of the book is Gorizia. Frederic Henry meets a beautiful English nurse named Catherine Barkley near the front between Italy and Austria-Hungary. At first, Henry's relationship with Catherine is an complicated game based on his attempt to seduce her, but when he is wounded and sent to the American hospital where Catherine works, their relationship progresses and they begin a passionate affair. After his recovery in the hospital, Henry returns to the war front. During a massive retreat from the Austrians and Germans, the Italian forces become disordered and chaotic. Henry is forced to shoot an engineer sergeant under his command and in the confusion is arrested by the Italian military police for the crime of not being Italian. Disgusted with the army and facing death at the hands of the battle police, Henry decides he has had enough of war. He dives into the river to escape. After swimming to safety, Henry boards a train and reunites with Catherinenow pregnant with Henry's childin Stresa. With the help of an Italian bartender, they escape to Switzerland and attempt to put the war behind them forever. They spend a happy time together in Switzerland and plan to marry after the baby is born. When Catherine goes into labor things go terribly wrong. The doctor announces that her pelvis is too narrow to deliver the baby. He attempts an unsuccessful Caesarian section, and Catherine dies in childbirth. To Henry, her dead body is like a statue. He walks back to his hotel without finding a way to say good-bye. The overall tone of the book is sad, confused and love. Frederick's actions are determined by his position until he deserts the army. Floating down the river with barely a...

Critical study of the parametric model development process The WritePass Journal

Critical study of the parametric model development process Abstract: Critical study of the parametric model development process Abstract: 1. Introduction2. The Proprietary Model Development Process3. ConclusionsReferencesRelated Abstract: Complex parametric models may consist of many interrelated cost estimating relationships (CERs), as well as other equations, ground rules, assumptions, and variables that describe and define the situation being studied. Models generate estimates based upon certain input parameters, or cost drivers. Parametric models can generally be classified as commercial or company-developed. This review provides practical information about developing, deploying, and maintaining company-developed parametric models. Company-developed models – also referred to as company-owned, in-house, or proprietary models – differ from cost estimating relationships (CERs) because of their higher level of complexity, and the range of costs they estimate. Commercial parametric estimating models, available in the public domain, use generic algorithms and estimating methods which are based on a database that contains a broad spectrum of industry-wide data. Unlike commercial models, company-developed mo dels are designed for the specific estimating needs of an organization or to describe a particular product. A proprietary model offers an alternative to trying to use a commercial model to meet an organization’s unique estimating requirements. JEL classification: C50, C51 Key words: equation, parameter, parametric model, commercial model, proprietary model 1. Introduction A parametric cost model can be viewed as the collection of databases, cost estimating relationships (CERs) [1], cost factors and algorithms, which together are used to estimate the costs of a system and its components. A parametric cost model uses known values to estimate unknown ones. Industry use parametric models to support conceptual estimating, design-to-cost analyses, life-cycle cost estimates, risk analyses, budget planning and analyses. Parametric models can also be used as the basis of a cost estimate in preparation of firm business proposals, or in the independent assessment of cost estimates prepared using a traditional estimating approach. Models generate estimates based upon certain input parameters, or cost drivers. Parameters â€Å"drive the cost† of the end product or service being estimated. Some examples are weight, size, efficiency, quantity, and time. Some models can develop estimates with only a limited set of descriptive program inputs; others, however, require the user to provide many detailed input values before the model can compute a total cost estimate. A model can utilize a mix of estimating methods, and it may allow as inputs estimates from other pricing models (or information systems) or quotes from external sources, such as subcontracts. Several companies implemented commercial parametric estimating hardware models, which can rapidly compute development and design costs, manufacturing costs of prototypes, and production unit/manufacturing support costs. Commercial parametric estimating models use generic algorithms and estimating methods which are based on a database that contains a broad spectrum of industry-wide data. Because this data encompasses many different products, a company working with a commercial parametric model must calibrate it before using it as a base of estimate for proposals submitted to the higher-tier contractors. Calibration tailors the commercial model so it reflects the products, estimating environment, and business culture of that particular company. A proprietary model offers an alternative to trying to use a commercial model to meet an organization’s unique estimating requirements. Proprietary models are developed for an organization’s own product and cost estimating needs and are, in effect, self-calibrated. Proprietary models can be implemented for a variety of estimating purposes, and have a wide range of complexity, completeness, and application. 2. The Proprietary Model Development Process The major activities involved in developing a proprietary model are: Step 1: Identifying the Parametric Model Opportunity One of the most critical steps in the proprietary model development process is the identification of a good opportunity for implementing a parametric model. This involves two points. First, it is important to investigate the feasibility of developing the model, which entails an evaluation of both its technical feasibility and cost effectiveness. Technical feasibility refers to the ability of the model to meet the estimating needs of the organization, and examines whether the organization has the resources to develop the model within a reasonable timeframe. This includes performing a cost-benefit analysis to decide whether a proprietary model would be cost-effective to implement and maintain. All potential benefits should be considered in the cost-benefit analysis; for example, contractors have achieved significant savings in proposal preparation, evaluation, and negotiation through the implementation of proprietary parametric estimating models. Other contractors have achieved additio nal benefits through multiple applications of the same model, such as for design studies, target costing, and contract risk management as well as basic estimating. The second critical point involves gaining the support of internal upper-level (including program) management and key customer management. If the model then meets the acceptance criteria provided by these groups, they agree to support its proper application in subsequent proposals. Little good comes from implementing a proprietary model if there is no internal management buy-in, or no support from the key customers on the estimating technique. Also, the firm’s management will want to understand the results of the feasibility study so it can properly assess the financial investment required to support model development and on-going maintenance activities, such as training, model enhancements, and software corrections. On receiving approval to begin development from internal and external management, the contractor establishes an implementation team to guide the creation of a valid proprietary model. This team should include representatives from the company and key customers. Step 2: Information Systems Needs When implementing a proprietary model, the organization should commit and obtain the necessary resources for information systems development and support activities. Information systems support is required for a variety of functions: defining the formal system requirements needed to support the cost estimating model (e.g., hardware, software, interfaces with other systems); testing the model to ensure it adequately satisfies all end-user requirements; maintaining the integrity of the model throughout its life span by establishing procedures to manage and control all changes (i.e., configuration management); providing software support services once the model is deployed to keep it operational (e.g., corrections, revisions, miscellaneous enhancements). When simpler models are implemented (e.g., spreadsheet models), the degree of support is smaller, but the configuration management and long-term maintenance issues still must be addressed. Step 3: Data Collection and Analysis Historical costs should be used, with the development team ensuring that they are relevant to the firms current operating procedures. In an effort to include as much relevant cost data as possible, analysts normalize it as it is incorporated into the database [2]. They adjust data so it is as homogeneous as possible (e.g., similar in content, time value of money, quantity), and does not contain anomalies. Programmatic, noncost data may also require normalization. The analyst must assess the condition of each program’s data and make appropriate adjustments as required. When developing a model, the team identifies the main characteristics, called the primary cost drivers, that are responsible for, and have the greatest impact on, the product or services cost to be estimated. Step 4: Model Development The development of a proprietary model incorporates many anticipated uses and goals such as estimating/users’ requirements, availability of credible data, life-cycle costs, systems engineering costs, forward pricing rates – and it must integrate these into the parametric estimating approach. The modeling process, in particular, focuses on these tasks: specifying the estimating methods for accomplishing the estimating goals; -identifying the job functions and other elements of cost that will be estimated; defining data input structures; Proprietary models may contain a number of different estimating techniques. Step 5: Calibration and Validation Parametric models are calibrated and validated before they are used to develop estimates for proposals. Since proprietary models are based on an organization’s historical data, they are considered to be self-calibrated. Validation is the process, or act, of demonstrating the proprietary model’s ability to function as a credible estimating tool [3]. Validation ensures: estimating system policies and procedures are established and enforced; key personnel have proper experience and are adequately trained; proper information system controls are established to monitor system development and maintenance activities in order to ensure the model’s continued integrity; the model is a good predictor of costs. Models should be validated and periodically updated to ensure they are based on current, accurate, and complete data, and that they remain good cost predictors. The purpose of validation is the demonstration of a model’s ability to reliably predict costs. This can be done in a number of ways. For example, if a company has sufficient historical data, data points can be withheld from the model building process and then used as test points to assess the model’s estimating accuracy. Unfortunately, data sets available are often extremely small, and withholding a few points from the model’s development may affect the precision of its parameters. This trade-off between accuracy and testability is an issue model developers always consider. When sufficient historical data are not available for testing, accuracy assessments can be performed using other techniques. Another testing methodology compares a commercial program’s final cost to the proprietary model’s estimate of it. However, it may be months, or years, before this approach can be applied to a given program. The model team may use this method when a program is near completion, or is at a point where a meaningful earned value performance index for it can be determined. Step 6: Estimating System Policies and Procedures After validation, the company must modify its estimating system policies and procedures to explain the appropriate use and application of the model for reviewers and company users. In particular, the model’s developers need to document its proper use as a valid bidding tool. Companies should also explain the model’s design, development, and use. For example, the contractor, as part of its support for the follow-on production model and estimating tool, developed a detailed manual containing information about the mechanics of the model, its estimating methodologies, and the timing of updates. The company also amended its Estimating System Manual to include a section on the model, and to refer the reader to the model’s own manual. Step 7: Internal Approval Process Model developers need to assure company representatives that the model relies on the firm’s historical data and, therefore, captures how the company executed similar projects in the past. Any departmental budget allocations produced by the model should reflect the average budgetary split the firm has historically experienced.   Developers should also consider the fact that a model, if approved, might change the way the company anticipates executing an existing (or planned) program (e.g., the project director may need to shift work and modify the budget). This obviously affects the circumstances under which other company personnel would approve the model. A best practice from contractor experience involves the integration of the company representatives into the model implementation team. As an example, when implementing the follow-on production model, the model designers, from the beginning, solicited the participation of key internal representatives. During the development of each module, the team incorporated the inputs of the functional department primarily responsible for executing that portion of the project which the module was designed to estimate. Although the Finance Department led the model building effort, it continuously reviewed its progress with representatives from the Engineering and Manufacturing Departments. These representatives were responsible for coordinating and obtaining any necessary information from their organization, and keeping management informed. Step 8: External Approval Process Although a company may internally approve a model, the customer must also be shown that the estimating approach is valid. The involving of customers in up-front decision facilitates their acceptance of parametric techniques. In seeking acceptance of a proprietary model, the company formed a Continuous Improvement Process (CIP) team [4]. The team’s composition included company representatives from various departments. All team members participated in establishing selection criteria for the model’s database. Based on the selection criteria, the contractor personnel collected actual cost data from many contracts. When using the model for the first time with a buying organization, the CIP team invites the buying organization to the company for a joint review and explanation of the model. Immediately after obtaining funding to develop the model, the developing company discussed it with other contractors, additional government organizations, to ensure widespread support in data collection and model validation. Including customers on the development team does not guarantee a model’s acceptance, of course. It does ensure that the customer has a voice in the model’s design and usage, but the model’s ability to reasonably predict costs is the ultimate basis for acceptance. No person, internal or external to the company, can prove this before final development and testing. Step 9: Model Maintenance Through the development process, the team develops a sense of how often the model needs updating. Maintenance activities include not only the incorporation of new data into the model, but also an evaluation of the mathematical relationships between the technical parameters and the costs the model estimates. Periodic evaluation of the model is required to ensure the estimates are relevant and the contractor is using the most current, accurate, and complete data. New data is contributed as programs mature and, occasionally, from non-company sources. In some situations, the cost modelers develop new CERs, based on a subset of the original database, in order to better match a new estimating requirement. The process of maintaining a model involves keeping an audit trail of the CERs developed, the data points used, and their statistical effectiveness. 3. Conclusions Company-developed parametric models – also known as proprietary models offers an alternative to use a commercial model regarding organization’s own product and cost estimating needs. No company or individual can develop a valid model without the participation of a number of key people which include the customers, all interested company personnel, and government representatives. Some concepts should be considered by all implementation teams as follows: establish a process flow and target development dates to ensure all team members provide their inputs to the models design; consider the costs and benefits of model development; evaluate commercial models as an alternative to proprietary development; remember that the goal is to establish a more efficient and reliable estimating system, not just create a model. References Stuparu D., Vasile T., Stanciu M. The Cost Estimating Relationships (CER’s) modern method for predicting cost, Revista Academiei ForÃ… £elor Terestre, nr. 1/2010. Vasile T., Stuparu D., DÄÆ'niasÄÆ' C.I. Collection and Normalization of Parametric Data, Analele UniversitÄÆ'Ã… £ii din Oradea, Tom XVIII, vol. II, 2009, pp. 703-708. Stewart R.D., Wyskida R.M., Johannes J.D. Cost Estimators Reference Manual, 2nd Edition, New York, Wiley, 1995, pp. 57-67. * * * ceh.nasa.gov/webhelpfiles/Cost_Estimating_Handbook_NASA_2004.htm

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